Corporate Social Responisbility Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Corporate Social Responisbility - Research Paper Example This notion of corporate social responsibility has been heavily debated on in recent years so much so that researchers have called into question the existence of the â€Å"social† aspect in â€Å"corporate social responsibility†. Advocates of CSR have increasingly defined it in terms of human rights, ethics, closures of plants, relations with employees and the environment. A more comprehensive definition of CSR and sustainability encompasses all three foundations of sustainability, including the people, economy and the environment. If only the social and environmental development is taking place that is referred to as â€Å"bearable† (Chick and Micklethwaite 83). If only the social and economic development is taking place, that is referred to as â€Å"equitable†, whereas, if only the environmental and economic development takes places, that is referred to as â€Å"viable† (Chick and Micklethwaite 83). CSR is achieved only when all three dimensions d evelop simultaneously; that is, it is bearable, equitable and viable (Chick and Micklethwaite 83). The very mention of CSR calls into question the reason for business’ existence. Whether or not businesses should be responsible for the society and environment remains questionable since the primary purpose of a business is to satisfy its shareholders and generate profits. This is the line of argument used by classical theorists who are against the practice of CSR. According to Milton Friedman, the only social responsibility of a corporate entity is that of doing business in an open competitive marketplace that is free of deception and any fraud by utilizing its resources in order to increase profits (Friedman 6). The classical advocates further maintain that managers are mainly responsible for catering to shareholders’ interests by enhancing financial returns to the business. Practicing CSR may lead to the dilution of economic productivity since the investments made in C SR may be irrecoverable (due to the non-profit nature of CSR activities) (Friedman 6). However, advocates of CSR base their arguments in favor of the same for various reasons. Usually, companies engage in such disclosure for two main reasons: achieving a competitive edge by enhancing employee morale and goodwill and pressure by external stakeholders such as governments, environmental agencies etc. Not adhering to the latter’s demands would mean a loss in company’s goodwill and, hence, profits. This leads us to the argument related to stakeholder view used by proponents of CSR. This view was conceptualized as early as in the 1970’s by Freeman who described organizations in terms of the managers’ relationships with stakeholders (Garriga and Mele 59). A stakeholder is typically any individual entity or group that has an impact on, or is affected by the corporation’s goals and objectives (Garriga and Mele 59). Companies can reconcile the conflicting ob jectives amongst stakeholders by engaging in a successful CSR dialogue with them in which the company gives something of value (such as a public service) to a significant community in lieu of popular support from groups and individuals within the environment. Advocates of CSR further state that firms are required to exercise duty of care when dealing with both primary and silent stakeholders (such as the community) (O’Riordan and Fairbrass 748). By recognizing the fact that shareholders’ interests cannot be satisfied without satisfying (to some degree) the

Dispostional Personality Theories Essay Example for Free

Dispostional Personality Theories Essay The two most common dispositional theories are Allport’s psychology of the individual theory and the trait and factor theory. Allport’s psychology of the individual theory emphasized that people are unique, even though they may share traits in common, and those unique qualities are what should be focused on. â€Å"More than any other personality theorist, Gordon Allport emphasized the uniqueness of the individual. He believed that attempts to describe people in terms of general traits rob them of their unique individuality†. In order to focus on the individuals uniqueness Allport felt that a broad theory is more useful than a narrow one and he would use information from different theorist in his research. For many years there has been much debate about how many traits actually have an effect on an individual’s personality. In recent years the majority of theorist have come to the conclusion that five is the magic number. Esyneck, McCrae, and Costa have focused their studies on the trait and facto theory and have done much research using standardized tests, clinical observations, and observations from friends and families of the individuals studied. â€Å"Trait and factor theories of personality are based on factor analysis, a procedure that assumes that human traits can be measured by correlational studies†. Each of these theories have different approaches to explaining an individual’s behavior. Both Allport’s psychology of the individual theory and the trait and factor theory have its own effect on individual personalities. Interpersonal relationships are influenced by each of these theories in its own way as well.

The History Use Of Prosthetics Health And Social Care Essay

The History Use Of Prosthetics Health And Social Care Essay The term Prosthesis can be defined as an artificial replica that replaces human damaged or lost body part. In the field of arthroplasty or joint replacement surgery, prosthesis is defined as an artificial joint that replaces the arthritis affected or damaged human articulation (i.e., bone joint). The primary objective of the arthroplasty is to relief patients from arthritis pain in addition with restoring joint functions. Though in most of the cases the reason behind the arthroplasty is the arthritis pain, its not only the reason. Human articulations can be damaged by severe impacts or unusual stresses. Prostheses are usually made for human main joints such as hip, knee, elbow, shoulder, wrist etc. Long term results of the arthroplasty depend to a great extent on the quality of prosthesis implantation. The application of the robotics technology in the field of arthroplasty reduces the inaccuracy that occurred in conventional joint replacement surgery such as misalignment, rotation er ror, resection etc. On the other hand, in the field of biomechatronics (i.e., the science of fusing artificially intelligent devices with the human body), prosthesis is defined as an artificial substitute for a missing body part. Human limb amputation can causes due to trauma, tumor, congenital, disease, etc. According to biomechatronics, prostheses are considered as those which replace human lost arms and legs. The development of the biomechatronics provides useful technology for the robotic prosthesis. Robotic prosthesis act as an extended body part of the amputees by using which amputees can be able to perform his/her daily life activities and take care of them by using their own body functions. As a result, robotic prostheses provide an independent life and more productive role of these people in the society. In addition with the prostheses mentioned above, artificial eyes, teeth, artery, and heart valves are also correctly termed as prostheses. TRANSHUMERAL PROSTHESIS FOR ABOVE-ELBOW AMPUTEES Transhumeral Prosthesis can be defined as a prosthesis that is designed for the people who have lost their arm just above the elbow joint (i.e., above-elbow amputees). Human arm amputation can caused due to congenital (birth defect), tumor, trauma, disease, etc. circulatory disease, cancer and infections are considered as the major categories of disease which may require surgical removal of human arm. Moreover, the civil wars and more specifically wars in Sri Lanka, Iraq and Afghanistan producing an unprecedented number of amputees. Although nothing can ever become a perfect substitute for a missing arm, the intension of the transhumeral prosthesis is to compensate for the lost functions of the above-elbow (AE) amputees absent arm, so that they can lead an independent life and play more productive role in the society. HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF THE PROSTHETIC ARM Prostheses have been found around for thousands of years, however real advancement and fabrication of the prostheses have started about 500 years ago [01]. According to the medical museum exhibited at the University of Iowa titled History of Prostheses, earliest prostheses were used by soldiers dating back to 484 B.C. Hegesistratus; a Persian soldier around 490 B.C. cut off part of his own feet in order to escape from the prison and later replaced it with a wooden foot [02]. In 61 A.D., Pliny the Elder wrote about the Roman General Marcus Sergius who had lost his right arm during the Second Punic War (218-201 B.C.). Later he had replaced that by an iron arm to support his shield and he returned to battle [03]. During the middle ages, 15th and 16th centuries cosmetic prostheses were usually made from iron. At that period, blacksmiths and armor makers designed the prostheses for the soldiers after modeling their suits of armor. In the 16th century, the great French arm surgeon Ambrose Pare, designed several limb prostheses in addition with practicing surgical amputation. In 1818, Peter Baliff appears to have been the first person to introduce the use of the trunk and shoulder girdle muscles as sources of power to move the prosthetic arm. In 1844, the first transhumeral amputation replacement used Baliffs principle to apply flexion for the elbow joint [03]. The prosthetic arm using this concept is termed as Mechanical or Body Powered prosthetic arm and still extremely famous among the amputees society. By 1860, the Crimean and Italian campaigns of the French Empire left many soldiers in need of prostheses, and their call was answered by the Comte de Beaufort [01] [03]. The Comte de Beaufort designed several limb prostheses using the articles of clothing, pulleys and levers. After the World War I and II, a tremendous loss of manpower in USA and Europe served as a catalyst for the rapid development of the prosthetic arm. In 1948, N. Wiener proposed the concept of Cy bernetics i.e., the study of control and communication between the human and the machine [04], which plays an important role later for the development of the prosthetic arm. In 1949, Samuel Anderson created the first electrically powered prosthetic arm using the external power with support from the US Govt. and IBM. The first myoelectric arm was developed by Russians in 1958 and later on Otto Bock Company revealed the commercially available prosthetic arm for general application which was the first made versions of the Russian design [03]. CLASSIFICATION OF THE PROSTHETIC ARM Prosthetic arms can be grouped into three general categories: 1) Non-functional or Cosmetic Prosthetic Arm As the name implies functioning of these prostheses has less priority than the appearance, weight, wearing comfort and easy handling. These are the oldest and available for 2000 years. Though cosmetic prostheses offer a more natural look and feel, they sacrifice functionality and versatility while also being relatively expensive [05]. 2) Mechanical or Body Powered Prosthetic Arm The power to operate these prostheses comes from the users own body. In this system, the user wears a harness that translates the shoulder motion into elbow flexion motion and action of gravity force generates the elbow extension motion. The earliest model of this prosthetic arm was the Ballif arm [06]. These prosthetic arms are light weight and less expensive than the others however it requires large amount of forces to actually move the elbow [07]. 3) Externally Powered Prosthetic Arm Most advanced commercially available prosthetic arm in which power to operate the prosthetic arm comes from the external sources such as electric motor and battery pack. Most of these prostheses are operated by using users stump arm muscles EMG signals. This type of prostheses provides greater proximal functions, increased cosmetic appeal but also tend to be much heavier and expensive than any of the other categories [07]. Present State and Proposed Transhumeral Prosthesis Recent progress in biomechatronics technology brings a lot of benefit to increase the mobility of above-elbow (AE) amputees in their daily life activities. A transhumeral or AE prosthetic arm is used to compensate for the lost functions of the AE amputees absent arm. A number of commercial prosthetic arms have been developed since last few decades. However, many amputees have not used them due to the discrepancy between their expectations and the reality. The main factors causing a loss of interest in presently available prosthetic arms include low functionality and poor controllability [08]. Since the concept of Cybernetics proposed by N. Wiener [04], a number of research works have already been carried out and are ongoing for the development of prosthetic arm. At present, Utah arm, Boston Elbow, and Otto Bock are considered as the pioneers in this field which are shown in Fig. 1 [09]-[12]. However, currently, commercial prosthesis available on the market for the AE amputees provides a limited DOF. Most of these prostheses provide elbow flexion-extension motion with a terminal device attached at the end. In addition to the elbow motion, some prostheses provide forearm supination-pronation motion and a single DOF at the terminal device for grasping object. Some passive DOF, which are useful to generate an optimal pre-determined configuration during performing certain tasks [13], are sometimes included in the prostheses. Commercially available expensive cosmetic prostheses offer a more natural appearance and simple control. However, their dexterity is relatively very poor compared to the human arm. Human arm generates precise and complex motions during daily life activities which are almost impossible to be generated by using a limited DOF prosthetic arm. As a result, the presently available commercial prostheses have failed to gain wide acceptance among AE amputees. Figure 1: Commercially Available Externally Powered AE Prosthetic Arm [14]. In order to improve the quality of life of AE amputees and to increase their mobility in daily life activities (like, eating, drinking, dressing, brushing etc.), a 5 DOF externally powered transhumeral prosthesis is proposed in this thesis. The prosthesis is designed to generate elbow flexion-extension, forearm supination-pronation, wrist flexion-extension and radial-ulnar deviation, and hand grasp-release motion. Currently, no commercial transhumeral prosthesis provides a combination of wrist flexion-extension and radial-ulnar deviation motion, which have uttermost importance to perform daily life activities. In recent years, a number of prostheses capable of generating multi-DOF motion have been proposed for upper limb amputees [13], [15]-[19]. However, none of these provide a combination of forearm and 2 DOF wrist motion with the exception of an arm designed for above-wrist amputees to provide wrist flexion-extension and forearm motion [18]. Bio-Mechanics of Human Upper Limb Before develop a robotic arm system to mimic to the human arm, the physics of the human upper limb should be thoroughly studied. Accordingly the upper limb mainly consists of three major components, the shoulder complex, elbow complex and wrist joint. Mainly the shoulder complex is built with three bones, clavicle, scapula and humerus and four articulations: the glenohumeral, acromioclavicular, sternoclavicular and scapulothoracic, with the thorax as a stable base. The only point of skeletal attachment of the upper extremity to the trunk occurs at the sternoclavicular (SC) joint. At this joint the clavicle joints to the sternum, the middle bones of the rib cages. The clavicle is connected to the scapula at its distal end via the acromioclavicular (AC) joint. At this joint, most of the movements of the scapula on the clavicle occur, and the joint handles large contact stresses as a result of high axial loads that are transmitted through the joint. The scapula interfaces with the thorax via the scapulothoracic (ST) joint. This is not a typical articulation, connecting bone to bone. Rather, it is a physiological joint containing neurovascular, muscular, and bursal structures that allow for a smooth motion of the scapula on the thorax. The final articulation in the shoulder complex is the shoulder complex is the shoulder joint, or the glenohumeral (GH) joint. Motions of the shoulder joint are represented by the movements of the arm. This is a synovial ball-and-socket joint that offers the greatest range of motion and movement potential of any joint in the body. The shoulder complex can be mimic to a ball-and-socket joint and can be modeled accordingly. The proximal part of the humerus, humeral head and the female part of the scapula, glenoid cavity respectively act as the ball and the socket of the joint. The main motion of the shoulder joints are shoulder flexion/extension, shoulder abduction/adduction and internal/external rotation. During this each motion, the position of the centre of rotation of the shoulder joint changes. The distal part of the humerus is connected to the elbow joint or the radioulnar joint. The elbow is considered a stable joint, with structural integrity, good ligamentous support, and good muscular support. It consists of three bones of the arm and the forearm, humerus, radius and ulna. Movements between the forearm and the arm takes place at the ulnohumeral and radio-humeral articulations, and movements between the radius and the ulna take place at the radioulnar articulations. The ulnohumeral joint is the articulation between the ulna and the humerus and is the major contributing joint to flexion and extension of the forearm. The joint is the union between the spool-like trochlea on the distal end of the humerus and the trochlear notch on the ulna. The second joint participating in flexion and extension motion of the forearm is the radiohumeral joint. At the distal end of the humerus is the articulating surface for this joint, the capitulum, which is supheroidal and covered with cartilages on the anterior and inferior surface. The top of the round radial head butts up against the capitulum, allowing radial movement around the humerus during flexion and extension. The capitulum acts as a buttress for lateral compression and the other rotational forces absorbed during throwing and other rapid forearm movements. The third articulation, the radioulnar joint, establishes movement between the radius and the ulna in pronation and supination. There are actually tw o radioulnar articulations, the superior in the elbow joint region and the inferior near the wrist. Also, midway between the elbow and the wrist is another fibrous connection between the radius and the ulnar, recognized by some as a third radioulnar articulation. The hand is primarily used for manipulation activities requiring very fine movements incorporating a wide variety of hand and finger postures. Consequently, there is much interplay between the wrist joint positions and efficiency of finger actions. The hand region has many stable yet very mobile segments, with complex muscle and joint actions. The wrist consists of 10 small carpal bones but can be functionally divided into the radiocarpal and the midcarpal joints. The radiocarpal joint is the articulation where movement of the whole hand occurs. The radiocarpal joint involves the broad distal end of the radius and two carpals, the scaphoid and the lunate. There is also minimal contact and involvement with the trinquetrum. This ellipsoid joint allows movement in two planes: flexion-extension and radial-ulnar flexion. It should be noted that wrist extension and radial and ulnar flexion primarily occur at the radiocarpal joint but a good portion of the wrist flexion is developed at the midcarpal joints Wrist motions are generated around an instantaneous center. The path of the centrode is small, however, customarily, the displacement of the instantaneous center of rotation is ignored and the rotation axes for the flexion/extension and ulna/radial deviation are considered to be fixed. The axes pass through the capitate, a carpal bone articulating with the third metacarpal. Although it is considered that wrist joint motions are generated with respect to the two axes, some research [11] has proved that the motions are generated with respect to four axes. The wrist flexion axis and the extension axis are different. Similarly the radial deviation axis and the ulnar deviation axis are also different. Therefore, the 2DOF of the wrist are through four axes. Although flexion and extension motions have different axes they are intersected in a point in capitates. Similarly, radial and ulnar deviations axes are also intersected. When we consider that flexion and extension motions have one axis and similarly ulnar and radial deviations have one axis, the slight offset of the rotational axes of the flexion/extension and the radial/ulnar deviation is approximately 5 mm [8], [12]. In addition the motion ranges of the upper limb are as follows.[23] G. Thompson and D. Lubic, The Bionic Arm: New Prosthetic Devices Fuse Man and Machine, Seventh Annual Freshman Conf., pp. 1-8., April 5, 2007. History of Prostheses, 2008, UIhealthcare.com. Available at: http://www.uihealthcare.com/depts/medmuseum/wallexhibits/body/histofpros/histofpros.html R. H. Meier, D. J. Atkins, Functional Restoration of Adults and Children with Upper Extremity Amputation, Demos Medical Publishing Inc. New York, 2004. N. Wiener, CYBERNETICS or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine, MIT Press, 1948. S. Nasser, D. Rincon, and M. Rodriuez, Design of an Anthropomorphic Underactuated Hand Prosthesis with Passive-Adaptive Grasping Capabilities, in Proc. of Florida Conf. on Recent Advances in of Robotics, Florida, May 25-26, 2006. W. J. Gaine, C. Smart, and M. B. Zachary, Upper Limb Traumatic Amputees Review of Prosthetic Use, Journal of Hand Surgery, vol. 22B, no. 1, pp.73-76, 1997. J. A. Doeringer and N. Hogan, Performance of Above Elbow Body-Powered Prostheses in Visually Guided Unconstrained Motion Tasks, IEEE Trans. on Biomedical Engineering, vol. 42, no. 6, pp.621-633, 1995. M. C. Carrozza, P. Dario, F. Vecchi, S. Roccella, M. Zecca, and F. Sebastiani, The Cyberhand: On the Design of a Cybernetic Prosthetic Hand Intended to be Interfaced to the Peripheral Nervous System, in Proc. of 2003 IEEE/RSJ Int. Conf. on Intelligent Robots and Systems, vol. 3, pp.2642-2647, 27-31 Oct., 2003. S. Lee and G. N. Saridis, The Control of a Prosthetic Arm by EMG Pattern Recognition, IEEE Trans. Auto. Contr., vol. 29, pp. 290-302, 1984. S. C. Jacobson, D. F. Knutti, R. T. Johnson, and H. H. Sears, Development of the Utah Artificial Arm, IEEE Trans. on Biomedical Engineering, vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 249-269, April, 1982. R. N. Scott and P. A. Parker, Myoelectric Prostheses State of the Art, Journal of Medical Engineering and Technology, vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 143-151, 1988. Otto Bock Arm Prostheses, Available at: http://www.ottobock.com. M. Troncossi, V. P. Castelli, and A. Davalli, Design of Upper Limb Prostheses: A New Subject-Oriented Approach, Journal of Mechanics in Medicine Biology, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 387-390, 2005. D. H. Plettenburg, Upper Extremity Prosthesis Current Status and Evaluation, VSSD Publications, 2006. A. Z. Escudero, J. Alvarez, and L. Leiza, Development of a Parallel Myoelectric Prosthesis for Above Elbow Replacement, in Proc. of Second Joint EMBS/BMES Conf., pp. 2404-2405, Houston, TX, USA, Oct. 23-26, 2002, T. Tsuji, O. Fukuda, H. Shigeyoshi, and M. Kaneko Bio-Mimetic Impedance Control of an EMG-Controlled Prosthetic Hand, in Proc. of the IEEE/RSJ Intl. Conf. on Intelligent Robots and Systems, pp. 377-382, 2000. O. Fukuda, T. Tsuji, M. Kaneko, and A. Otsuka, A Human-Assisting Manipulator Teleoperated by EMG Signals and Arm Motions, IEEE Trans. on Robotics and Automation, vol. 19, no. 2, pp.210-222, 2003. K. Ito, T. Tsuji, A. Kato, and M. Ito, An EMG Controlled Prosthetic Forearm in Three Degree of Freedom Using Ultrasonic Motors, in Proc. of IEEE Int. Conf. on Engineering and Biology Society, vol. 4, pp.1487-1488, 1992. Y. Saito, A. Ogawa, H. Negoto, and K. Ohnishi, Development of Intelligent Prosthetic Hand Adapted to Age and Body Shape, in Proc. of IEEE Int. Conf. on Rehabilitation Robotics, pp.384-389, Chicago, USA, 2005. C. P. Neu, J. J. Crisco and S. W. Wolfe, In Vivo Kinematic Behavior of the Radio-Capitate Joint during Wrist Flexion-Extension and Radio-Ulnar Deviation, J. Biomech., vol. 34, pp. 1429-1438, 2001. F. H. Martini, M. J. Timmons, and R. B. Tallitsch, Human Anatomy, Prentice Hall, Pearson Education, Inc, 2003, ch. 8. Y. Youm, Design of a Total Wrist Prosthesis, Ann. Biomed. Eng., vol. 12, pp. 247-262, 1984. D.C Boone and S.P Azen, Normal Range of Motion of Joints in Male Subjects, in The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery, vol. 61, pp.756-759, 1979. www.jbjs.org

Exemplification Essay: War and World Peace :: Expository Exemplification Essays

World Peace is something that will never happen. Too many countries have too much military power and don't want to give in to any other country. War is something that the world is going to have to deal with because there has been very few years over the history of the world that have been war free. Like one quote by an unknown author says, "Peace is rare: less than 8% of the time since the beginning of recorded time has the world been entirely at peace. In a total of 3530 years, 286 have been warless. Eight thousand treaties have been broken in this time." Albert Einstein, born on March 14, 1879 is one of the most influential people of the modern era. (Einstein) As a physicist he changed our understanding of the universe. He was very outspoken about the significant political and social issues of his time. As a Jew he advocated a moral role for the Jewish people. Over his scientific career, he was on a mission for the universal and indisputable laws that govern the physical world. Science was Albert Einstein's love, but he always found time to devote many of his efforts to political causes that were close to his heart. He strived for peace, freedom, and social justice. He became an active leader of the international anti-war movement. (Albert Einstein Archives) Einstein died on April 18, 1955. (Einstein) Einstein said, "I don't know what kind of weapons will be used in the third world war, assuming there will be a third world war. But I can tell you what the fourth world war will be fought with- stone clubs." This means that whatever weapons are used in the third world war will knock us back in time because they will be so powerful. That is also the reason he doesn't know what they will be because they will be so far advanced compared to his time. This is very possible because of the advances some countries have made in their military strength. For example, the United States executed 1054 nuclear tests between July 16, 1945 and September 23,1992. They also executed two nuclear attacks in that period although the number of actual bombs tested in that time period is far greater. Exemplification Essay: War and World Peace :: Expository Exemplification Essays World Peace is something that will never happen. Too many countries have too much military power and don't want to give in to any other country. War is something that the world is going to have to deal with because there has been very few years over the history of the world that have been war free. Like one quote by an unknown author says, "Peace is rare: less than 8% of the time since the beginning of recorded time has the world been entirely at peace. In a total of 3530 years, 286 have been warless. Eight thousand treaties have been broken in this time." Albert Einstein, born on March 14, 1879 is one of the most influential people of the modern era. (Einstein) As a physicist he changed our understanding of the universe. He was very outspoken about the significant political and social issues of his time. As a Jew he advocated a moral role for the Jewish people. Over his scientific career, he was on a mission for the universal and indisputable laws that govern the physical world. Science was Albert Einstein's love, but he always found time to devote many of his efforts to political causes that were close to his heart. He strived for peace, freedom, and social justice. He became an active leader of the international anti-war movement. (Albert Einstein Archives) Einstein died on April 18, 1955. (Einstein) Einstein said, "I don't know what kind of weapons will be used in the third world war, assuming there will be a third world war. But I can tell you what the fourth world war will be fought with- stone clubs." This means that whatever weapons are used in the third world war will knock us back in time because they will be so powerful. That is also the reason he doesn't know what they will be because they will be so far advanced compared to his time. This is very possible because of the advances some countries have made in their military strength. For example, the United States executed 1054 nuclear tests between July 16, 1945 and September 23,1992. They also executed two nuclear attacks in that period although the number of actual bombs tested in that time period is far greater.

Online grading system Essay

Chapter I Nowadays, computers and other technology are very useful in the fields of education especially in our daily activities. The importance of computers cannot be denied in the fields of education because as we all know, computers are very significant in terms of learning and working. With those technologies, we can save time for other activities. Computers connected with internet also serve as useful tools for communication. Through this process various types of descriptive information and measures of students’ performance are converted into grades that summarize students’ accomplishment. Online Grading System is designed to provide incentive reward for achievement and assist in identifying problems of the student. Grading System is the most commonly used in computing and analyzing the performance, talent and skills of student? Grading system is an exercise in professional judgment on the part of the teachers. It involves the collection and evaluation of evidence on students’ achievement or performance over specified period of time. Parents can view and updated on the performance of their children. While teachers work load can be lessen through computing the grades automatically. Online Grading System of Cauayan South Central School (CSCS) is design to provide the system where in the parents of the students of Cauayan South Central School (CSCS) can access the grades of their children. Originally, the school was opened in the year 1953 through the initiation and encouragement of the late Teodoro Cariňo, who was at that time the Division Academic Supervisor from Pangasinan who resided here in Cauayan. The Teaching Staff welcomed and embraced the growing enrolment. Though their sincere and dedicated service to the community, they begged for more school buildings to house the school children hungry for formal education. From this point of view, the school will serve as a potent instrument because of the vast extent of outreach and of the size of the populace. To optimize this contribution to social, intellectual and cultural development, it has to maintain and accelerate its progress to be able to cope fully with changing world. It is believed that with the time tested, loyalty and cooperation of the school officials and teachers, the CSCS will surely be the best show window of the City Division. Thus, the above reasons drove the researcher to conduct a study regarding the Online Grading System, which aims to improve their present system. Statement of the Problem This study was conducted to assess the present of Cauayan South Central School Online grading system and aims to computerize the records of the students of Cauayan South Central School. Particularly the study attempted to answer the following questions: 1. To what extent are the problems encountered by the students and teachers in the present system in terms of: a. Security of records b. Efficiency of the present system c. Economics 2.What is the respondents’ evaluation on the advantages of the proposed Online Grading of the Students Record System in terms of: a. Security of records b. Efficiency of the present system c. Economics 3. Is there a significant difference in the evaluation on the problems encountered as perceived by the three groups of respondents in terms of: a. Security of Records b. Efficiency of the present system c. Economics SIGNIFICANT OF THE STUDY The result of this study â€Å"A proposed Online Grading System for Cauayan South Central School, Cauayan City, Isabela† are very important to the following: To the school – The result of this study will definitely help the Cauayan South Central School, Cauayan City, Isabela no longer have to re-compute the grades of each student to check on their accuracy. Reports such as grading sheets and class records can be submitted on time via online. To the faculty Teachers – Teachers would be able to record and compute for the grades of their students in any place or in any time with an internet connection and faster thereby lessening their workload and providing them with added time to attend to other functions. This in turn would improve their efficiency as teachers. To the Students – Students can now look forward to better lessons since their teachers would have added time to prepare for them their lesson plans. To the Parents of the Students – The parents can know the grade of their children through online. To the researchers – This study enhances the knowledge of the researcher in writing and programming. Furthermore, this study gave the opportunity to the researcher to learn and strive more to become competent in her field of interest. To the Future Researchers – this study will focus as an instrument for researcher related activities and will help them gain insights about the study and how to go about it. Definition of Terms Computer. It is any machine that does three things accept structure, process it according to prescribed rules and produce the result as output. Computer Program. In this study, it is a set of instruction in some computer language intended to be executed on a computer to perform a useful task. Data. In this study, it is the plural of the Latin datum, meaning an item of information following classical usage, one time of information. Input. In this study, it is the information entered in a computer for processing. Information System. In this study, in programming it is a collection of routines stored in a file. Each set of instruction in a library has a name and performs a different, often very specific task. System. In this study, it is a collection component elements that work together to perform a task Software. In this study, it is a computer program, instruction that cause the hardware the machine to do work. SCOPE AND LIMITATION This study was conducted at Cauayan South Central School involving the pupils, teachers and parents during the School Year 2014-2015 This study focused on the assessment of the student’s grades of Cauayan South Central School and the development of the Online grading System. This study is limited only to the student’s grade and does not cover the other transaction of the school. It cannot be used for conversation. If the instructor submitted wrong grades of student, the online system is not  reliable in human error. The grade encoding process relies on internet connection Chapter 2 Review of Related Literature and Studies To be familiar with the study, the researchers gathered some information through surfing the internet and scanning text book to improved their related literature and studies. Local Literature According to Torall (200) think with all the tough times were facing, having a website now is very important among small and medium enterprises and use it as medium to sell product and disseminate corporate information. Having a website communication where one can join. Foreign Studies According to Moreno (2000), School is now in their own website but they got to effectively utilize this technology to bring real benefits to their audience: students, parents, teachers, and school officials. The World Wide Web is one of the most effective communication technologies today. A school website can expand opportunities for parents to communicate with the school and become more informed about the education their children are getting. Teachers can use the school website to share ideas with other teacher and make them available even to everyone else. A school websites can also allow parents to voice out there concerns to school officials. Some parents avoid communicating with their children’s school because they do not feel comfortable talking to teachers or they think their concerns will not be heard while others are simply burned out by their work. When the need arises, many parents and teachers find themselves unable to contact each other. School websites can greatly eliminate barriers in involving parents in the school. Foreign Literature Castro(2000). The World Wide Web is the Gutenberg press of our time. Just above anyone can create their own web. Web site and then present it to the internet public. Some web page belongs to business with service to sell, other to individuals with information to share. Randall(1996) an English professor at the University of Waterloo Canada, heist the author of several books about the internet. Thousands upon thousands of companies, organization, and individuals are looking to the web as an important means disseminating information. If you’re not part of it, you’re already somewhat behind. Jumping onto the web is like jumping onto the biggest stage ever designed. When you put your page in the web, you’re inviting the world become take a look. Most internet user won’t bother, either because they’re not interested or, more likely, because they never get to know your contribution (it’s a huge stage). Realizing that the average person, when they begin to look into CCTV, has little way of knowing where to find expert advice at reasonable cost, we have set up this website to bring together some of the top people and organizations working in this field. The companies and individual found on this web site are those who do not just talk about excellence, but both believe in it, and make sure that it runs through every fibred of there organization and dealing with costumers. Local Studies Guidance for Government Webs site Issued (www.nee.edu.ph.com) The National Computer Center (NCC) recently issued memorandum curricular 2002-01, â€Å"Guidance on Creation of the agency’s official website and compliance to the E-commerce law and stage one of the UN-ASPA stage of E-Government†. The circular further states that the computer agency will coordinate and provide technical assistance to national government agencies (NGAs), Local Government Units (LGU) and state universities and collage (SUCs) to ensure that they have website that will provide basic public information. The basic information includes the following; organizational aims structure and responsibilities of each unit. Mangulit (2001) Book Store Inc. According to Mangulit, Website now number by the millions. There are personal Website, corporate website, small business Website, and so on. And the number of website just keeps on growing each day. Website provides two real value-adding services. Website allows companies to either make more money or save money. Business can make more money by selling their product and services through the website. The website also to save money allow business. According to Ducusin, Many Business School, Individual, and Government agencies at all levels have rushed to establish a presence on the internet. The attraction is the ability to quick and inexpensively provides information to a large number of people. The website can provides the public with information about government agencies also provide about agencies mission, service offered, office hour, and email add for correspondence. Eventually users of the WWW will be able to submit request to an agency for document or other inquires directly though the webpage. Also provide information about the government agencies and the service that they offer. Many of the interactions between citizens and government that require visit to government office could be handling through home page in the internet. Request for permits driver’s license record, documents and forms could all be handled through the internet. Chapter III Technical Background At present, Cauayan South Central School, Cauayan City, Isabela are using manual system in grading of student’s. They are using forms to track the student transaction in the school and then keep it in drawer or cabinet for safe keeping.! PHP platform was used in the development of the program. Since the project is designed as a client server program, two or more networked computers are needed in the school for the implementation of the project. The program will be used by the teachers. The teacher’s and student’s must registered if new and has no record yet in the website. Once the students is already registered in the website and wants to have their grade, the student or the parent will just search student’s record, and then input his or her findings and recommendation in the website for the  update of student’s record. Below are the technologies used in the development of computerized medical and dental record system. Software PHP Platform used in the development of program Microsoft Windows 7,8,XP Operating system (minimum requirement) SQL Server Database 2005 Database (minimum requirement) Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Internet Explorer, RockMelt, and Safari Browsers (recommended use of Google Chrome) Hardware Computer Unit Specification (minimum requirement) 1 gigahertz (GHz) or faster 32-bit (x86) or 64-bit (x64) processor 1 gigabyte (GB) RAM (32-bit) or 2 GB RAM (64-bit) 16 GB available hard disk space (32-bit) or 20 GB (64-bit) DirectX 9 graphics device with WDDM 1.0 or higher driver Internet Connection Ink Jet Printer (for report printing) Network Hub and UTP cables were used in networking the computers. Peopleware System user must be knowledgeable in using computer. Chapter IV Methodology The methodology chapter provides the details of the step by step procedures used in developing the Online Grading System. The project procedures will be explained in detail. Requirements Specification The proponent used the System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) – a structured analysis concept in developing a system. Phase 1 – SYSTEM PLANNING The proponent performed preliminary investigation to the school where we able to identify the process and flow of manual grading. Phase 2 – SYSTEM ANALYSIS After the investigation, the proponent build logical model for the new system based from the user requirements. Phase 3 – SYSTEM DESIGN At this stage the proponent design the user-interface and identify all necessary outputs, inputs, and processes. In addition the proponent design internal and external controls including computer based and manual features to guarantee that the system will be reliable, accurate, maintainable and secure. Phase 4 – SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION I this phase the proponent constructed the new system. Program is written, tested and documented and system is installed. Phase 5 – SYSTEM OPERATION, SUPPORT AND SECURITY At this point, the clinic staff maintains and protects the system. Based on the phases and deliverables of the SDLC, Figure 1 shows the timeline of the researcher undergone. The entire study is accomplished in 2014 Figure 2? Data Gathering Procedures First, the researcher prepared a letter seeking for the approval from the principal name After seeking approval, the researcher prepared the questionnaires, have them checked and approved by the Research Instructor and then administer the questionnaires to the respondents. Data Gathering Instruments This study made use of the Questionnaires as its main instrument in gathering data. It also made use of interview to support the data and  information gathered from the questionnaires. This will also be supplemented by observations and documentary analysis. Questionnaire The researcher used the questionnaire method in collecting data in a large number of people. The questionnaire undergone different kind of approval; first, the questionnaire was checked by the adviser to make sure that is related to the statement of the problem. Second, the English Critic made sure that the grammar and spelling were ceorrect. Interview The researcher interviewed the principal to obtain pertinent data and accurate information that would help in improving their manual grading. Observation Observation was done by the researcher to get more information about the current process. Internet Researcher The researcher used the internet to collect additional information about Online Grading System. Library Reseacher Library research was done in defining terms in the study and served as a reference in making document analysis from similar studies and procedures. The method helped the researcher and served as a guide on how to organized data that is needed on the study. Figure 3: Input-Process-Output (IPO) model The proponent used the IPO model. In the input column is information or ideas used by the researcher. Processing column are the actions taken upon using input. Output is result of the processing, which is the development of the proposed system. Data and Process Modeling Figure 4: Proposed System Context Diagram The context diagram illustrates the structure of the Online Grading System of Cauayan South Central School. It shows the relationship among the Administrator, Teacher’s, Students. The system has inputs like the student information, teachers information, and user information. To access to the system, the user enters the correct username and password. After the username and password validation, the user can add, delete, edit and view depending of the transaction desired. The system output is the Grade of the Student’s. Data Flow Diagram The researcher used the Data Flow Diagram to understand the flow of the project and at the same for future study. DFD demonstrate the external entities, data storage and the to be performed. In the Lon in process, the user needs to enter his username and password. When the username and password were entered, the system will look for any information matched in the database. As soon as the system confirms that the information given is valid, the system will show the user’s interface. There are different views for the administrator, the student and the teacher. Figure 5: Log in Information of Online Grading System of Cauayan South Central School

You Need to Check Out These 70 Most Liberal Colleges in America

You Need to Check Out These 70 Most Liberal Colleges in America SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips If you’re politically active, you may want to go to a college where the students, faculty, and administration share your values. You’ll be more likely to find student groups that are aligned with your interests and beliefs and you'll probably have a more enjoyable college experience. In this article, I’ll give you the names of some of the most liberal colleges in the United States. Furthermore, I’ll detail the traits of liberal colleges, explain possible advantages and disadvantages of liberal colleges, and advise you how to find liberal colleges that could be a good fit for you. Traits of the Most Liberal Colleges Liberal colleges are very politically left-wing. They're more accepting of different sexual orientations and gender identities, and students tend to favor liberal positions like ending the War on Drugs, outlawing private prisons, and raising the minimum wage. The most liberal colleges tend to be private liberal arts colleges.Very liberal students are often drawn to small liberal arts colleges because these schools offer a more progressive education. For example, at Reed College, grades are recorded, but deemphasized and not distributed to students, and professors serve more as mediators in class discussions as opposed to being lecturers. Furthermore, the most liberal colleges usually reflect the political leanings of their locations. Many of the most liberal colleges are located on the west coast and in the Northeast, both known for being extremely liberal places. Possible Advantages of Going to a Liberal College If you're very liberal, then you'll probably be happier and more comfortable around like-minded people. You're more likely to make friends who share your political and social views. Your professors are also likely to be very liberal, and you'll be receiving an education that coincides with your values and beliefs. Liberal colleges are known for being extremely tolerant and culturally sensitive. LGBT students and students from underrepresented backgrounds may feel more supported at liberal colleges. The college is more likely to offer support services and organizations for these students. Also, very liberal colleges tend to be less strict and structured. Many liberal colleges pride themselves on being less focused on grades and big lecture classes and more focused on collaboration and self-actualization. They often have a much more permissive culture, and they tend to be less likely to harshly punish students who engage in "extracurricular" activities that are stereotypically associated with college life. If you're liberal and go to a conservative college, it's possible that you'll feel isolated and ostracized for your beliefs. You'll find more Bernie Sanders fans at liberal colleges. (Marc Nozell/Flickr) Possible Disadvantages of Liberal Colleges If you're very liberal, you may benefit from being exposed to different viewpoints. Having your beliefs challenged and being around diverse opinions can help you learn and grow. If you're very liberal and attend a liberal college, you may just be surrounding yourself with people who are likely to echo your beliefs. While liberal colleges are tolerant of people from different backgrounds, they tend to not be very tolerant of conservative viewpoints. Many of the students at the most liberal colleges view conservatives as closed-minded or ignorant. If you want to be in an environment that welcomes diverse viewpoints, you may not feel completely comfortable at the most liberal colleges. Furthermore, the most liberal colleges and students are becoming notorious for protesting and taking action against speech they consider insensitive or offensive. Many people believe these colleges and students have become hyper-sensitive. Because most colleges tend to lean liberal, and the majority of college faculty members are liberal, you don't have to attend the most liberal colleges to be around liberal people and ideologies. The only colleges that have a reputation for being more conservative are many of the religious schools, the service academies, and public colleges in the most conservative states. Finally, the less structured environment at the most liberal colleges may not be beneficial to you. Some students need more structure and discipline to excel. Also, the lack of emphasis on grades and a traditional curriculum at some of the most liberal colleges may not suit your educational needs and could negatively impact some of your future job opportunities. The Most Liberal Colleges Let's go through two rankings of the most liberal colleges, so you can get a sense ofwhereyou might want to look if you're hoping to attend a particularly liberal school. Niche Niche is a website that provides reviews, rankings, and statistics about neighborhoods and schools. It provides many different college ranking lists from the overall best colleges to the top party schools to the most liberal colleges. The Niche rankings of the most liberal colleges are based on a political poll of 50,000 students from 747 colleges. A full 80% of the rankings is based on student survey responses regarding the students' personal political leanings. The remaining 20% is based on student survey responses regarding the political leanings of other students at the college. The List I'm giving you the top 50 most liberal colleges according to Niche, with #1 being the most liberal. Most of these colleges are private colleges and many are small liberal arts colleges. Some of the public universities that made the top 50 are University of Vermont, UC Santa Cruz,SUNY Purchase, andPortland State University. UC Santa Cruz (Casey Marshall/Flickr) School Location Acceptance Rate 1. University of California - Santa Cruz Santa Cruz, CA 51% 2. San Francisco State University San Francisco, CA 70% 3. Columbia College Chicago Chicago, IL 92% 4. Mills College Oakland, CA 87% 5. University of California - Berkeley Berkeley, CA 17% 6. Mount Holyoke College South Hadley, MA 51% 7. Bard College Annandale-On-Hudson, NY 58% 8. Portland State University Portland, OR 92% 9. American University Washington, DC 29% 10. Oberlin College Oberlin, OH 34% 11. New York University New York, NY 28% 12. Howard University Washington, DC 41% 13. Sarah Lawrence College Bronxville, NY 53% 14. Bryn Mawr College Bryn Mawr, PA 38% 15. Smith College Northampton, MA 32% 16. Vassar College Poughkeepsie, NY 24% 17. SUNY Purchase College Purchase, NY 74% 18. Carleton College Northfield, MN 21% 19. Wesleyan University Middletown, CT 16% 20. University of Washington Seattle, WA 46% 21. SUNY New Paltz New Paltz, NY 44% 22. Northwestern University Evanston, IL 9% 23. Kenyon College Gambier, OH 34% 24. Fashion Institute of Technology New York, NY 47% 25. University of California - Santa Barbara Santa Barbara, CA 33% 26. CUNY Hunter College New York, NY 40% 27. Western Washington University Bellingham, WA 85% 28. Columbia University New York, NY 7% 29. Roosevelt University Chicago, IL 70% 30. Denison University Granville, OH 37% 31. University of Oregon Eugene, OR 83% 32. University of San Francisco San Francisco, CA 66% 33. Barnard College New York, NY 15% 34. Morgan State University Baltimore, MD 64% 35. SUNY Buffalo State College Buffalo, NY 58% 36. Occidental College Los Angeles, CA 42% 37. New College of Florida Sarasota, FL 69% 38. University of California - Riverside Riverside, CA 57% 39. Emerson College Boston, MA 46% 40. Swarthmore College Swarthmore, PA 11% 41. Northeastern University Boston, MA 27% 42. Hofstra University Hempstead, NY 64% 43. Boston University Boston, MA 25% 44. Bowdoin College Brunswick, ME 14% 45. California State University - Los Angeles Los Angeles, CA 46% 46. San Jose State University San Jose, CA 67% 47. Spelman College Atlanta, GA 40% 48. California State University - Dominguez Hills Carson, CA 54% 49. Ithaca College Ithaca, NY 71% 50. University of Vermont Burlington, VT 67% Rally of the "Carleton College Dems" (cursedthing/Flickr) Princeton Review The Princeton Review rankings for the most liberal colleges are based on students' responses to the question "Politically, are you left-wing, Democrat, middle, Republican, right-wing?" The List All of these colleges are small, private colleges with the exception of Clark University (Worcester, Massachusetts) and Brown University (Providence, Rhode Island), which are progressive private research universities. Schools that made both the Niche and Princeton Review lists are Bryn Mawr and the University of Vermont. The schools on the Princeton Review list are ranked from 1-20. School Location Acceptance Rate 1. Bryn Mawr College Bryn Mawr, PA 38% 2. Bennington College Bennington, VT 63% 3. Reed College Portland, OR 35% 4. Earlham College Richmond, IN 62% 5. Sarah Lawrence College Bronxville, NY 53% 6. Grinnell College Grinnell, IA 25% 7. Pitzer College Claremont, CA 14% 8. Scripps College Claremont, CA 28% 9. Mills College Oakland, CA 71% 10. Brandeis University Waltham, MA 34% 11. University of Vermont Burlington, VT 67% 12. Clark University Worcester, MA 55% 13. Skidmore College Saratoga Springs, NY 36% 14. College of the Atlantic Bar Harbor, ME 76% 15. Carleton College Northfield, MN 21% 16. Whitman College Walla Walla, WA 43% 17. Brown University Providence, RI 9% 18. Mount Holyoke College South Hadley, MA 50% 19. Lawrence University Appleton, WI 68% 20. Wesleyan University Middletown, CT 22% Marlboro College (Jared and Corin/Flickr) Student Reviews of Liberal Colleges Niche also offers student reviews of colleges. Here are some comments written by students about some of the most liberal colleges in the United States. I tried to include positive and negative comments about each school related to its very liberal environment. UC Santa Cruz There are some classes that really drill in the necessary skills needed for you future career. Other classes show you different aspects of other studies, which may be great for finding the perfect major. Overall, I would say that community is that best part of this college. It has taught me to be more open-minded and to always question the everything. Hippies everywhere! Public service announcement: if you need to be on psychedelics or smoke weed to have a better appreciation for the nature around you, you're doing something wrong! Nature is beautiful sober. Grinnell College Grinnell is extremely accepting of people from all walks of life. We have tons of programs and groups on campus to accommodate all students, such as Concerned Black Students, Cultural Diversity Panel, Spectrum, and Queer Students of Color. It was a great experience, but it requires that you are self-motivated. I thought I was at first and it was a hard wake-up call. You will be beaten, but you will come out better for it. Smith College Northampton is a perfect college town, very liberal, artsy, hipster, and worldly. So is the food. So many different types of restaurant options are available. Smith trusts its students, and it's also a school very concerned with social justice, so even seemingly trivial violations are taken very seriously and reported. Skidmore College I've learned a lot about issues that make people uncomfortable (especially in the United States) like race relations, radical environmental initiatives and the true significance of privilege. If you want drugs, then you will be able to find them relatively easily, and more than just your basics. Pot is smoked by more people than not. Alcohol is also very widely used. Most of campo just wants you to be safe and discreet, so if you are then you probably won't have any problems. For the most part, you need to be pretty obvious and obnoxious to get in trouble. Skidmore College How Should You Use These Lists of the Most Liberal Colleges? If you want to go to a very liberal college, you should research the colleges on the Niche and Princeton Review lists that interest you to determine if they’re schools you should apply to. There are many factors to consider to determine if a college is a good fit for you including location, selectivity, support services, and the majors offered. Look at the school’s website, and use guidebooks, college finders, search websites, and other ranking lists to help you in the college selection process. If possible, consult with teachers, counselors, parents, current students, and alumni. What Should You Do If You Want to Attend a Liberal College, but a School You're Considering Isn't on EitherList? Just because a school you're considering didn't make either list doesn't necessarily mean that it's not liberal. As I mentioned previously, most colleges tend to be more liberal than conservative. If you want to go to a college with a liberal atmosphere, look at the school's website to see if there are student groups that are aligned with your political and social views. There may be student groups for Democrats, feminists, or LGBT students. Similarly, there may be student groups that advocate for more liberal organizations or causes like Planned Parenthood, NORML (National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws), climate change, or affirmative action. Also, you can consult other sources that evaluate or grade how liberal a college is. On the Niche profile for each college, under "diversity" for each school's guide, there is a category called "political activity" that describes the political activity on campus. For example, this is how Harvard's political activity is described: Harvard possesses a largely liberal political base, but conservative political groups do make their presence felt. Nearly every student has an informed opinion, and the Institute of Politics provides an excellent forum for discussion and debate of current political topics. On the College View college finder, you can select that you're "only interested in schools with a very liberal climate" and search for colleges that fit that criteria. Furthermore, there are 20 other search categories to help you narrow your college search. Finally, remember that the political leaning of a college is often reflective of the city or town where the college is located. Colleges in the Northeast and on the west coast tend to be more liberal, and colleges in the South tend to be more conservative. You can determine if a specific city or town is liberal by looking up the candidates it supported in the last election and its views on various political and social issues. From the city of Liberal, Kansas, which is ironically more conservative What's Next? Since liberal arts colleges are predominantly liberal, you may be interested in checking out our rankings of the 28 best liberal arts colleges in the country. Also, if you want to go to a selective college, you should take a look at the colleges with the highest SAT scores. Finally, because college tuition prices continue to rise and you may be worried about how you're going to pay for college, I recommend you read this post on how much college really costs. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

The UnIslamic Nation Of Islam Essays - Nation Of Islam, Free Essays

The UnIslamic Nation Of Islam Essays - Nation Of Islam, Free Essays The UnIslamic Nation of Islam The mention of the ?Nation of Islam? will undoubtedly cause an immense number of responses in any situation. To some, this organization symbolizes blatant racism. To others, it is seen as a savior of the black community. Regardless of one?s opinion of the Nation, though, the differences between Al-Islam(traditional Islam) and the beliefs of the Nation cannot be denied. The Nation of Islam is a social movement. This social movement is undoubtedly rooted in religion, and its principles are derived from those of traditional Islam, but their basic philosophies are so strikingly different that the Nation of Islam cannot be considered Islamic. In 1930, the Nation was founded by an African immigrant who called himself Wallace D. Fard Muhammad. He stated that his mission was to take ?the black nation to the full range of the black man?s possibilities in aworld temporarily dominated by the blue-eyed devils?(forerunner.com/foreruner/X0065_Nation_of_Islam.html). This philosphy was carried on to the next leader of the Nation, Elijah Muhammad, and eventually to the current leader, Louis Farrakhan. The Nation was founded as a black organization, and has remained as such. Islam, on the other hand, is all encompassing. The first, and most astonishing, difference between the Nation and traditional Islam is the role of race in the church?s philosophy. the Nation?s philosophy clearly states that, ?We believe that intermarriage and race mixing should be prohibitted (www.noi.org/ program.html)?. The traditional wording of the Koran, however, states that diversity in race is one of Allah?s greatest creations(Koran, 30.22). The Nation of Islam restricts its membersip to those who are black. the beliefs of traditional Islam, however, state that all persons are born Muslim, and that ?every person is endowed by Allah with the spiritual potential and intellectual inclination that can make him a good Muslim.(4) The Islamic church ignores the issue of race when examining one?s spiritual purity. Rather, It is the spirit itself which defines a Muslim. Traditional Muslims and members of the Nation of Islam also differ in their definition of what it means to be Muslim. The belief in Islam is defined by five Pillars: shahada(the belief in only one Allah), salah(prayer), zakuh(obligatory charity), sawm(fasting), and hajj(pilgrimage) (www_leland.stanford.edu/group/Thinker/v2/v2n3/Saudi.html). Of these Five Pillars, the Nation of Islam requires none of its members. The shahada is rejected by the Nation because it belives that Wallace D. Fard Muhammad was Allah incarate. (noi.index) Salah, or the five daily prayers in the direction of Mecca, are also not required of members of the Nation(coolguy). Zakuh is rejected by the nation, as it believes charity is a ?way to benefit the dominant classes of the culture.(coolguy). Sawm is also not required of Nation members, nor is the hajj to Mecca(coolguy). (Ironically, it was the hajj of Malcolm X which led him to abandon his separatist beliefs, and to preach unity). The rejection of the five basic requirements of Islam is representative of the distances between the Nation of Islam and traditional Islam. Because of these differences, the Nation cannot be accepted as just another chapter of Islam, but it must be treated as a different and distinct religion. The third difference between the Nation of Islam and traditional Islam is the manner in which other religions and their members are regarded. Islam accepts the existence of all prophets from Moses to Muhammad. (Koran, 2:91) The Nation, however, believes that Wallace D. Fard Muhammad is the true prophet(Noi.program). Traditional Islam regards members of all religions as holy. The Koran states that, ?those who believe, and those who are Jews, and Christians, and Sabaeans-whoever believeth in Allah, and the Last Day doeth right- surely their reward is with their Lord, and their shall no fear come upon them neither shall they grieve?(2:62). Farrakhan, on the other hand condemns those of other religions and races. In a speech in January 1994, Farrakhan warned members of the Nation of Islam that ?they(the jews) are plotting against us even as we speak (www.strang.com/cm/stories/emmy/96tl.html).? He proposes that other religions are inferior to Islam, as well as proposing that different races are unequal. The Nation of Islam believes that the white race was created by a botched experiment of mad scientist named Yakub, 6,000 years ago(7). It is beliefs such as this which create the image of the Nation which is common to most: a racist organization which preaches Black supremacy. Some may argue that the often outrageous methods and beliefs of the Nation of Islam have done more good than harm. In 1996, Farrakhan organized the

IM Not Scared Cahrts Micheles Increasing Maturity and Sense of Morality. Discuss. Essays

IM Not Scared Cahrts Micheles Increasing Maturity and Sense of Morality. Discuss. Essays IM Not Scared Cahrts Micheles Increasing Maturity and Sense of Morality. Discuss. Essay IM Not Scared Cahrts Micheles Increasing Maturity and Sense of Morality. Discuss. Essay I’m Not Scared is a coming of age text, written by Niccolo Ammaniti, and it is based on the journey of a young Michele Amitrano moving from childhood innocence to experience. Initially he is naive and ignorant towards things that has no impact to his ‘perfect little world’, however, after encountering several events he changes his perspective. This takes form through the influences of his peers, adults and a reflection of himself. Among Michele’s peers there are several whom that mould the journey of his increasing sense of morality and maturity. Skull, the tyrant leader of the children’s gang, is corrupted. He takes joy from tormenting and bullying others, he also enjoys giving orders but if they are not fulfilled he can ‘turn nasty. ’ Michele’s initial awakening of his morals comes from one of Skull’s cruel punishments. Skull forces Barbara to unbutton her shirt and show her ‘tits’ to everyone by threatening her saying that, ‘If you don’t, you can forget about coming with us anymore. ’ Obviously living in such a small, rural and secluded town like Acqua Traverse, that would seem like the end of the world to a 9 year old and hence against her wishes she reluctantly obeys. Out of curiosity Michele takes a peek, however he immediately feels regret like he has committed a crime. Barbara then takes her bottled up frustrations out on the small helpless and innocent dog, Togo. She pushes the dog under the mud in order to drown him, but when confronted by Michele, who witnesses everything. She immediately denies it all and produces excuses to try and explain her actions. ‘He’s crawling with ticks and fleas. That’s why I was giving him a bath. ’ As she tries to kill Togo, she actually sings the song called ‘The Beautiful Goodbye’ implying that this was the final farewell for the powerless dog. His best friend Salvatore is not any better he is manipulative and corrupted by greed. He ridicules Michele’s ‘Judas secret’ to later use it to his advantage and betrays Michele’s trust for the opportunity to gain driving lessons from their nemesis Felice. Felice Natale, who is Skull’s older brother, is the result of their brute of a father. With no moral sense at all, he is unaware of the consequences of his actions, such as the unnecessary lustful attack on Teresa right in front of Michele. He is forced to take care of Fillipo, who nicknames Felice as he â€Å"lord of the worms†, because he often threatens to squash him like a worm. As Michele learns more about the truth of the corrupted evil adult world, he changes his perception on everything. The pure image of his father whom he worshipped like an idol becomes tainted and shatters after he overhears his father threatening to cut off Fillipo’s ears. It was his comment â€Å"Two ear s we’ll cut off. Two. † That makes him doubt every little thing he once knew. The representation of his father warps into the bogeyman. ‘Papa was the bogeyman. By day he was good, but at night he was bad. ’ Through this experience of betrayal his wisdom increases and learns to accept the harsh reality. That monsters exist within people rather than imaginary figures. Michele’s mother Teresa is an admirable character that tries to protect Michele. She understands the consequences of actions long before the kidnapping of Fillipo, but as a woman in a male-dominated society, she is powerless to voice her opinions. Thus, she warns Michele â€Å"When you grow up you must go away from here and never come back. So that he does not become corrupted and influenced to be involved in criminal acts like all the adults in Acqua Traverse. At the beginning of the story Michele already displays a strong sense of justice which aids his maturity. His innate sense subconsciously prevails at times of need. The first signs of awakening morality are already evident at the beginning of the text, when he resists Skull’s second attempt to force Barbara to do another forfeit which consisted of showing her ‘slit’. Regardless of the consequences he takes responsibility because of his sense of morality. He intuitively volunteers to do it in her place because of the guilt he felt from the first forfeit. â€Å"There was something dirty, something.. I don’t know. † Although Michele is righteous he allows his greed to provoke him into revealing Fillipo’s whereabouts to Salvatore in order to gain the jinxed plastic football team that he does not really like. Yet upon reflection he immediately feels horrible and realizes that what he has done was bad, as he says ‘I was worse than Judas who had bartered Jesus for thirty pieces of silver†. Another similar challenge that Michele confronts is when his parents bribe him with a new bike to not see Fillipo. However, after his first encounter of being overcome by greed he knows better and decides to go against his father’s oath in order to save Fillipo which compensates for the ‘Judas secret’. The turning point for Michele when he loses his innocence and advances to maturity is when he realizes that he too is not perfect. He learns that he is capable of committing heinous crimes just like the adults did, because at the end of the day he too is human. â€Å"What was in my nature? What could I do? † was what he thought to himself. After all the blood of his father, who is a criminal, runs through his veins. However despite Michele’s age his ethics, compassion and innate sense of what is right are guides he uses to do the right thing. He gains wisdom through the experiences and events that occur throughout the text which result in a loss of naivety in order to become an adolescent.

Why did the camp David summit in 2000 Collapse Essay

Why did the camp David summit in 2000 Collapse - Essay Example he favorite spot for negotiation due to its previous successes such as 1978’s Camp David Accords whereby the then United States’ President Jimmy Carter brokered a peace deal between Egypt and Israel, and 1993’s Oslo Accord on the Final Status Settlement; which provided agreement should be reached between Palestinians and Israelis on all outstanding issues primarily based on historical injustices with which the negotiations, which were for the most part verbal neither fulfilled Palestinians or Israeli interests thus the collapse of the summit (Finkelstein, 2005, pp.39-53). The two parties failed to agree over the following issues, the so-called final status settlement, and which formed the basis of negotiation: The Palestinians refugees demanded full implementation right of return which included: Each refugee to be granted the option of returning back to his/her home, with property restored and/or accept compensation. This would mean a concession by Israel which translates to demographic overwhelming of Israel since the first Arab-Israeli war led to movement of a significant number of Palestinian Arabs approximately 750000 from Israel whom by today is slightly over four million people inclusive of their descendants. Socially, Israel observed this influx could jeopardize its Jewish character and majority of the decision makers maintained that a large number of Jewish refugees were expelled from Arab countries and that they were never compensated, ruling out the demands of restoration of property and/or compensation to Palestinians by Israel, which at that point was against the will and demands of Palestinians. Economically, an international fund worth$30 billion was to be set up in a bid to help resettle the refugees in their present place of inhabitance at an expense of Israel gradually absorbing 150,000 refugees a year; a proposal which at first did not favor Israel but Palestinians in a nutshell and in the long run analysis. Israel on their side strongly

The Risk of Energy Drinks Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Risk of Energy Drinks - Essay Example According to the research findings, although energy drinks have advantages, they may also affect both physical and mental health of consumers. There is a range of positive effects of energy drinks which make the market of energy drinks grow as great numbers of people consume them and take them as a favorite drink. For instance, according to recent statistics, energy drinks take around 20 percent of the entire beverages store in the market. This shows that the growing popularity is mainly created by the fast positive effects an energy drinks can produce. The main constituents that energy drinks have per bottle are â€Å"carbohydrate, caffeine, guarana, sodium, ginseng, taurine† and other ingredients. The first benefit of energy drinks is that when drinking them a person can show improvements in paying attention, concentration and memory due to the nervous system stimulation. Clearly, energy drinks can improve and make people more active in their mental performance, which seems to be the most important advantage of energy drinks. The second benefit that makes energy drinks well for people is that they improve and increase physical performance. Research proves the relationship between the energy drinks use and the improvement of reaction time and delayed tiredness. Moreover, according to Johnson, Foster, and McDowell, there are five studies that examined effects of energy beverages, and they show improvements of upper and lower body muscles strengths as well as cycling strength. Therefore, energy drinks can be useful when a person trains hard or involves a long and concentrated mental work and needs a boost of energy, attention, and concentration. Due to the ability to decrease the time of recovery, energy drinks can allow one to be physically and mentally active for a longer period of time and with a better concentration.

How can US Small business survive in a Global Economy Research Proposal

How can US Small business survive in a Global Economy - Research Proposal Example However, there are substantial uncertainties regarding the level of management within this sector, with US policy-makers indicating that there are specific flaws in innovation (Katz & Green, 2011), lack of economic insight, entrepreneurial talent, practical understanding, and human resource management. According to Johnson and Turner (2010), the early phases are of significant value for the small business as these a very high failure rate. Keeping in view this high failure rate in the small business sector, it seems essential to examine the aspects, characteristics, or management skills that are necessary to facilitate the small business to survive and progress in global economy. ... ituational Analysis It is understandable that as the global economy goes on towards more and more integration due to progress of communications approaches, growth in developing nations, and decline in barriers for cross-country business, a few of the best prospects for small businesses will draw by operating within the global market. Within the developed as well as developing nations around the globe, US policy makers at all levels have accepted the fact that small businesses are turning out to be more and more essential with respect to employment, creation of wealth and the improvement in innovation. Alternatively, there are significant reservations regarding the excellence of management within this sector, with policy makers telling that there are specific weak spots in improvement, dire need of economic insight, advertising, entrepreneurial talent, understanding of market, and human resource management (Gupta, 2008). Therefore, a number of small businesses do not get to their comp lete potential and fail to survive, causing lost employments and capital for their area in which they are situated. Earlier research proved that there are four decisive phases within the life of a small business where the phases are decided by the time-span the business has been functioning. The estimated duration of every phase is as follows: first phase is the commencing point and is approximately three years in length. Subsequently, second phase is the development period and is four to six years in length; third phase is the established part and it is somewhere between six to eight years in length; and fourth phase is the constancy period having more than nine years of duration. Linked with all of these phases is a special set of business traits, tests, decision-making aptitude, and

Commentary for IB Literature Facebook sonnet Essay

Commentary for IB Literature Facebook sonnet - Essay Example Overall, the poem evokes a keen melancholic sense of the narrator primarily due to his or her feelings of loneliness because of the lack of human warmth and the losses one suffers because of it. The author deftly deploys several literary devices such as allegory, metaphors, similes and symbolism to depict the character’s emotions and illustrate the disdainful stage of his or her mind. Rendered in sonnet structure, the poem opens with reminiscences of the narrator about the high school reunions, which now occurs over the internet through social networking sites. The author uses symbolism here to allude to the facelessness of social networking interactions by alluding to the fact that people welcome friends and lovers from the past irrespective of whether they are â€Å"kind or cruel† (Alexie, 2011, L. 3). This further suggests that people are indiscreet when they interact with others through online media, without knowing a person’s intentions are good or bad. Besides, the narrator also points to the situation that people in the modern day, dwell on unnecessary elements from the past which makes them â€Å"undervalue† the present and, therefore, they fail to mend the wrongs they do in the present. Thus, through illustrating the attitudes of the modern humans through symbolism the author demonstrates the absence of human warmth in their lives wh ich saddens the narrator. The author deploys the literary device of allegory to show that humans in the modern day have become mechanical and they eschew everything natural because of their obsession with technology such as internet and social networking. He refers to the situation where people need to â€Å"exhume, resume, and extend† their childhood, which apparently is the most innocent and natural period in every person’s life (L. 7). He further emphasizes that every stage of human life should be same or in other words, he means that it is essential for

Surrogate motherhood Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Surrogate motherhood - Dissertation Example Surrogate motherhood is a theme that evokes numerous opinions. There are many supporters of surrogate motherhood as well as many opponents. Neither of them is right or either of them is right in their own way. This research project is not focused on considerations of opponents or proponents. The literature review presented further on is focused on a current paradigm of surrogate motherhood. It is supposed that it is relevant to pay for surrogate motherhood to women who have already given birth to their own children. Physical and emotional load of surrogate motherhood is evident and it is not an easy labor. There should be no commercial spirit of surrogate motherhood, but it should be paid like any other kind of labor. Legal aspect of surrogate motherhood A common surrogate motherhood criticism is determined by the claim that it is impossible to buy or to sell a child. A child is not a commodity and money relationship is irrelevant from this perspective. In the New York State Task For ce on Life and the Law it is concluded that â€Å"the exchange of money for possession or control of children.., threatens to erode the way that society thinks about and values children, and by extension all human life†Ã'Ž Thus, from this perspective, a child’s birth is the natural outcome of a certain deal and it can be transferred from one party to another for money. A supposition that children in this case are treated like commodities can be contradicted by the fact that sometimes parts of a human body are treated like objects (Meehan, 2000). It can be argued that commodities require cleaning, cherishing etc, so it is not wrong in this context to treat children as commodities or objects. Thus, it is relevant to consider in this context people who pay money to buy a child from a surrogate mother. A good treatment is usually guaranteed to a child who is bought. From another perspective, such kind of an immoral treatment is irrelevant, because children are not commodi ties from the very beginning. Babies are given by God and it is not proper to sell or too buy them. With this respect one may argue that for example, when an individual wants to meet his spouse he pays for a matrimonial agency. But in this case a future spouse is not bought; it is just a money transfer to a matrimonial agency. Thus, it can be said that not a child is bought, but services of a surrogate mother are bought. Moreover, the services of a commercial surrogacy agency are bought. At this point it is relevant to talk about surrogacy arrangement. It is a cruel reality of the modern world that parents want to become legal parents and receive custody rights and for this purpose they have to pay a certain sum of money. A surrogate mother wants to get money for her services of bearing a child since it is a hard work to bear a child. An interesting suggestion is provided by†¦: â€Å"In a commercial surrogacy agreement, the commissioning couple could be thought of as buying pa rticular services from the surrogate mother. But it is not necessary to suppose that anything at all is bought or sold† (Mitchell, Pellegrino, Elshtain, Kilner & Rae, 2006). In this case obligations of one party imply that it gives money to another party in case obligations are fulfilled. This is a pragmatic paradigm that is often discussed in the contemporary researches and studies in this field. Therefore, we can surely claim that no illegal basis lies in terms of these contracts. There is a well-known paradigm suggested by Blyth and Potter, who claim that surrogacy does not imply buying or selling children, because future parents â€Å"might even imagine that they have purchased a particular baby.., what they have paid for is not necessarily the same as what they think they have paid for† (Mclachlan&Swales, 2009). This is an interesting claim and it is worth considering. There is such kind of cases, when future parents rejected to take the baby from a surrogate mothe r when it has already come into the world. Therefore, a legal

Mintzbergs Planning and Positioning Schools Essay

Mintzbergs Planning and Positioning Schools - Essay Example Aspects addressed include Steiner model of strategic planning, planning hierarchies, and Mintzberg’s 7 deadly sins of strategic planning. Steiner is recognized for coming up with a model that outlines the structure and process of strategic planning in a systematic way (Steiner, 1979). He pointed out that the process of strategic planning should be a collective responsibility of all managers in all managerial levels within an organization. Steiner’s model outlines the assessment of expectations of key outside interest, assessment of expectations of key inside interest, examining past performance, and current performance and future forecast. The model also outlines the evaluation of environmental opportunities and threats, organizational strengths and weaknesses, assembling of master strategy as composed of mission, purposes, objectives, policies, and program strategies. Steiner’s model provides organizations with strategies on competitive advantage over their rivals, which is not elaborate in other models. The other strength is its emphasis on a plan, which calls for commitment from top management (Steiner, 1979). Planning can be effected through corporate, business and departmental hierarchical levels. Planning at the corporate level entails selection of businesses in which the organization should compete. It also deals with the development and coordination of a corporate level portfolio. Planning at the corporate level focuses on defining corporate responsibilities, determining the center for competition, management of business units, and identifying the overall goal of an organization (Simerson, 2011). Planning at the business unit level concentrates on the functioning of operating units, as well as developing a competitive advantage for goods and services rendered by an organization. This entails placing the organization against its rivals, speculating on future changes, and influencing the

Commentary for IB Literature Facebook sonnet Essay

Commentary for IB Literature Facebook sonnet - Essay Example Overall, the poem evokes a keen melancholic sense of the narrator primarily due to his or her feelings of loneliness because of the lack of human warmth and the losses one suffers because of it. The author deftly deploys several literary devices such as allegory, metaphors, similes and symbolism to depict the character’s emotions and illustrate the disdainful stage of his or her mind. Rendered in sonnet structure, the poem opens with reminiscences of the narrator about the high school reunions, which now occurs over the internet through social networking sites. The author uses symbolism here to allude to the facelessness of social networking interactions by alluding to the fact that people welcome friends and lovers from the past irrespective of whether they are â€Å"kind or cruel† (Alexie, 2011, L. 3). This further suggests that people are indiscreet when they interact with others through online media, without knowing a person’s intentions are good or bad. Besides, the narrator also points to the situation that people in the modern day, dwell on unnecessary elements from the past which makes them â€Å"undervalue† the present and, therefore, they fail to mend the wrongs they do in the present. Thus, through illustrating the attitudes of the modern humans through symbolism the author demonstrates the absence of human warmth in their lives wh ich saddens the narrator. The author deploys the literary device of allegory to show that humans in the modern day have become mechanical and they eschew everything natural because of their obsession with technology such as internet and social networking. He refers to the situation where people need to â€Å"exhume, resume, and extend† their childhood, which apparently is the most innocent and natural period in every person’s life (L. 7). He further emphasizes that every stage of human life should be same or in other words, he means that it is essential for

Mintzbergs Planning and Positioning Schools Essay

Mintzbergs Planning and Positioning Schools - Essay Example Aspects addressed include Steiner model of strategic planning, planning hierarchies, and Mintzberg’s 7 deadly sins of strategic planning. Steiner is recognized for coming up with a model that outlines the structure and process of strategic planning in a systematic way (Steiner, 1979). He pointed out that the process of strategic planning should be a collective responsibility of all managers in all managerial levels within an organization. Steiner’s model outlines the assessment of expectations of key outside interest, assessment of expectations of key inside interest, examining past performance, and current performance and future forecast. The model also outlines the evaluation of environmental opportunities and threats, organizational strengths and weaknesses, assembling of master strategy as composed of mission, purposes, objectives, policies, and program strategies. Steiner’s model provides organizations with strategies on competitive advantage over their rivals, which is not elaborate in other models. The other strength is its emphasis on a plan, which calls for commitment from top management (Steiner, 1979). Planning can be effected through corporate, business and departmental hierarchical levels. Planning at the corporate level entails selection of businesses in which the organization should compete. It also deals with the development and coordination of a corporate level portfolio. Planning at the corporate level focuses on defining corporate responsibilities, determining the center for competition, management of business units, and identifying the overall goal of an organization (Simerson, 2011). Planning at the business unit level concentrates on the functioning of operating units, as well as developing a competitive advantage for goods and services rendered by an organization. This entails placing the organization against its rivals, speculating on future changes, and influencing the

Racial Profiling Essay Example for Free

Racial Profiling Essay A person should not be judged due to their appearance. Today skin color makes you a suspect in America. It makes you more likely to be stopped, more likely to be searched, and more likely to be arrested and imprisoned. When police officers stop or charge a person based on their race; that’s racial profiling. Racial profiling has been occurring around the nation for years. Statistics show that if a Caucasian man and an African American man are both driving a nice car and speeding at the same time; the police officer is most likely to stop the African-American man. Not only is racial profiling wrong, but is disrespectful to minorities, and should be illegal throughout America. Racial profiling should be illegal because it causes discomfort and humiliation to many minority citizens, lack of unity in the American people, and the possibility of real criminals getting away because he is not a minority thus becoming a threat to society. Racial profiling causes a huge discomfort and humiliation to many minority citizens. New Jersey officials admitted to racial profiling on April 20, 1999. The report showed that racial profiling practices in New Jersey are not just an insight. The report recognized the targeting of African American and Latino drivers to troopers who abused their positions by ignoring the rights of minorities. Police officers dont understand how degrading and humiliating this can be. Yes racial profiling can be used by countries to fight crimes thus giving security to its citizens, but it also causes a discomfort to minorities. Additionally, the more police continue to arrest citizens based on their race, cultural background, and religion the more we lack unity in America. When police officers offend minorities by racial profiling, it makes the country divide even more. You would think that after the civil rights movement people would become as one; however, racial profiling only makes it worse. How can we unite as a country if we can not look past the surface? Racial profiling is a great divider among the people in America; if America can not look past its differences this problem will worsen, and then America, the land of the great, will fall. Don’t ask what the police can do to make the situation better-but what can we do to help the police make the  situation better! The Possibility of real criminals getting away is becoming a threat to society because police are overlooking the fact that he or she is not a minority. If a detective is given a description that does not include the ethnicity of the suspect, they automatically search for a suspect that has the ethical background of the African American, or Hispanic decent. This happens because African-Americans and Hispanics are known for causing the most crimes, which is why we need to stop the racial profiling. With that being said, this inevitably disregards all the possible suspects who are not of the minority decent. Even though racial profiling is used by police to narrow down their search for the possible suspects, minority citizens become more intensified with the fact that they are the ones being targeted and accused for such crimes that they did not commit. To conclude, racial profiling is a conflict all around America. We as citizens in America need to our best to stop racial profiling; I reiterate we need to try our best to stop racial profiling! I heard this quote once â€Å"United we stand, but divided we fall.† This quote should urge you to want to put an end to racial profiling. Racial profiling is something that may never stop in America. It is wrong and unjust. Still, it is something worth fighting for, for the many who suffer because of the problem and for this country in general. Everyone has different opinions on Racial Profiling, some people say there are benefits or others have negative impacts on racial profiling.

FTIR spectroscopy of SO2

FTIR spectroscopy of SO2 Abstract In this lab, the IR spectrum of SO2 gas was taken. The spectrum was then used to determine which peaks corresponded to the vibrational modes of SO2 ­. Once the modes had been determined, the experimental wavenumbers of the v1 and v3 modes and the overtones were used to determine the anharmonicity of the two different modes. While there was a difference between the two modes anharmonicity, overall there was not a significant difference. The modes and their corresponding wavenumbers were also used to calculate the force constants of SO2. The experimental data produced a force constant k1 with 3.112% error while the kÃŽ ´/l2 constant had a 2.963% error. Introductions IR spectroscopy is the detection of a transmittance or absorption intensity of change as a function of frequency1. In recent years, Fourier transform spectrometers replaced the traditional dispersive spectrometer because they are faster and more sensitive. They have made it possible to analyze many areas which were not possible with the dispersive spectrophotometer. The difference is the simultaneous examination of all frequencies. The three basic spectrometer components in a FT system are the radiation source, interferometer and detector. The radiation source in precision FTIR instruments is often water-cooled in give it more power and stability2. Figure 1. shows a diagram of the interferometer and the schematics of the spectrophotometer as a whole. The interferometer has the following three components: a moving mirror, fixed mirror, and a beamsplitter.. The beamsplitter is a semireflecting geranium thin film of small particles deposited on flat KBr substrate. Radiation from the broadband IR source is focused into the interferometer, and hits the beamsplitter. Once the beam hits the beam splitter, half of it is transmitted to the fixed mirror while the other half is transmitted to the moving mirror. The changing position of the moving mirror relative to the fixed one generates an interference pattern and causes the two beams to oscillate in and out of phase. When the beams are in phase, there is a constructive interference resulting in the maximum detector response. However, when the beam is out of phase, there is a deconstructive interference between the two beams. Once they have been reflected from both mirrors, they recombi ne at the beam splitter. The recombined beam passes through the sample and then focuses on the detector2. The intensity of the radiation hitting the detector will vary in a sinusoidal manner while the mirror is moving at constant velocity. The record of the interference signal is the interferogram and is a time domain spectrum. The detectors response changes versus time within the mirror scan are recorded. When a sample absorbs at a certain frequency, the amplitude of the sinusoidal wave reduces proportionally to the amount of sample in the beam. In an IR spectrophotometer, this process happens in three component frequencies, which creates a more complex interferogram2. To convert these interferogram recordings to the IR spectrum, a Fourier transformation is used. Small, precise intervals are used during the mirror scan. The rate of the sampling behavior is controlled by a monochromatic beam produced by a helium neon laser focused on a separate detector2. For this analysis, the mid IR spectrophotometer utilized a KBr beamsplitter and a mercury cadmium telluride (MCT) detector. MCT detectors are photon detector with a dependence on the quantum nature of radiation. They also exhibit very fast responses. They must be at a constant temperature of 77^(o)K, the temperature of liquid nitrogen. It is faster and more sensitive than the alternative detector, the deuterated triglycine sulfate (DTGS) 2, which was used for the far IR analysis. The cell used to hold the SO2 gas can be seen in Figure 2. A molecules energy can be split into three components: the electrons motion, the constituent atoms vibrations and the whole rotation of the molecule. While electronic transitions happen on a short timescale, rotational transitions happen on a longer time scale. When a molecule is placed in an electromagnetic field, such as light, energy from the light is transferred from the field to the molecule. This happens upon the satisfaction of Bohrs frequency condition: ΔE = hv When a molecule is excited from one state to another, the energy difference between the two states is absorbed by the molecule. When the molecule reverts back to the previous state, the change in energy which was absorbed upon excitation is then emitted1*. A molecule will be excited by photons which possess the appropriate energy3. Vibrational transitions are observed in the infrared (IR) spectra which are about the 103 ~ 104 cm-1 region. These transitions are caused by the vibration of the nuclei constituting the molecule. The rotational transitions occur at 1-103 cm-1 region, the microwave region, while the electronic transitions occur at 104-106 cm-1 region, the UV-visible region. As the vibrational quantum number v increases, the rotational intervals tend to decrease. The vibrational fine structure of electronic transitions can give insight to the structural and bonding information about molecules which are electronically excited1*. A system displaced from its equilibrium force will be restored due to a restoring force provided by the elasticity of the system. However, there is a property of inertia which causes the system to over correct for the displacement. The back and forth actions of elasticity and inertia cause the system to have oscillatory motion4. When the potential energy is graphed versus the internuclear separation, a perfect harmonic oscillator forms a parabola. The energy spacing in a harmonic oscillator does not change throughout the well of the parabola and is equal to hω where ω=km12 and the zero point energy is Eo= 12hω When a system is not a perfect harmonic oscillator, it is considered anharmonic. Anharmonicity forces the right side of the parabola to widen and asymptotically approach zero. The spaces between the permitted states are not evenly spaced as they were in the harmonic system5. The comparison of the two graphs can be seen if Figure 3. One of the possible ways to calculate xe, a term which shows the anharmonicity of a system is to graph ?G/? versus (?+1). This yields a graph with an equation as follows ΔGv=v+ 1xeve+ ve By dividing the xeve term by ve, the xe term is found. The larger this number, the more anharmonic the system is and vise versa5. Covalent bonds of molecules are not rigid as ball and stick models would suggest, but rather they can be compared to stiff springs which are capable of stretching and bending. More energy is required to stretch and compress a bond than it does to bend it. There is a direct relationship between the energy or frequency which characterizes the stretching vibration of a bond and the bond dissociation energy3. The major factors which are influencial in the stretching frequency of a covalent bond can be seen in the following equation: v = 12rck(m1+m2)m1+m2 where v is the frequency, k is the force constant, c is the speed of light, and m1 and m2 are the masses of the two atoms on each end of the bond. This equation corresponds to the rigidness of the oscillation. However, it should be noted that not all molecular vibrations are capable of being observed in the infrared region. In order to be seen in an IR spectrum, a vibration must cause a change in the dipole of a molecule. This change in charge distribution allows the molecule to absorb infrared light. There is a proportional relationship between the change in charge distribution and the absorption: the greater the change, the stronger the absorption3. All vibrating physical objects have a set of normal modes6. A normal mode can be defined as a simple harmonic oscillation which occurs about an area which is local and low in energy. The normal modes are determined by the systems structure R and its energy function V(R ). Any motion can be expressed as a superposition of normal modes when a pure harmonic V(R ) is being considered. However, the near minimum potential can still be approximated by a harmonic potential for an anharmonic V(R ). Also, small-amplitude motions can still be described by the sum of normal modes. This means that all systems behave harmonically at low temperatures7. For SO2, it is necessary to have nine Cartesian coordinates in order to determine the positions of all three nuclei. Therefore, the molecule is considered to have nine nuclear degrees of freedom. The first three are necessary to describe the position of the center of mass of the molecule. If these three degrees change, it represents the translational movement of the molecule in space. The next three degrees of freedom refer to the orientation of the molecule. These three degrees can be described as the angles of the molecule. If these three degrees change, then the molecule has rotated. The three remaining coordinates are those used to describe the relative positions of the three atoms. These are called vibrational coordinates8. To describe the vibrations of a bent trigonal molecule, it makes sense to use the valence coordinates. The valence coordinates consist of the two bond lengths and the bond angle. However, they do possess a drawback. If energy is put into a bond so that it stretches, to observe how the molecule reacts is difficult due to the energy put into the stretched bond quickly flowing into the vibrations of the other bond in the molecule. Because of this, it is said that the stretching of a single bond and other vibrational motions are coupled8. By varying the coordinates, which are the linear combinations of changes in the bond lengths and bond angles, a good uncoupled approximation can be made. These coordinates are called the normal coordinates. Motions which take place in these coordinates are appropriately called normal modes of vibration. The center of mass does not move in these coordinates8. A non symmetric molecule with N number of atoms will have 3N-6 normal modes. This means SO2 will have 3(3)-6 = 3 normal modes. The normal modes for SO2 can be seen in Figure 3. The symmetric stretch is labeled as v1, the bend is labeled v2, and the asymmetric stretch is labeled v3. When a molecule is exhibiting one of the vibrational modes, it travels the path indicated by the arrow, stops, and then returns back to its starting position8. It is possibly to express the three normal modes as a potential-energy function written in terms of bond stretching and angle bending as shown in the following equation: V = 12k1(R1-Re)2+ 12k1(R1-Re)2+ 12kb(ÃŽ ¸-ÃŽ ¸e)2 where R1 and R2 are the first and second bond length of S-O, Re is the equilibrium S-O bond length, ? is the bond angle of O-S-O, and ?e is the equilibrium value. The constants ks and kb ­ are for the stretching and bending respectively9 ­. Though the derivations are difficult, it was found that the following equations are derived from eq. (1) and are used to calculate both constants: 4r2v32 = 1+2momssin2ÃŽ ±k1mo 16r4v12v22 = 21+2momssin2k1moÃŽ ±kÃŽ ´l2 4r2v12+v22 = 1+2momscos2ÃŽ ±k1mo+2mo1+2momssin2ÃŽ ±kÃŽ ´l2 where v# is the wavenumber of that particular mode, 4?3 is expressed as 5. 8918E-5 in order to obtain units of Nm-1, mo is the mass of oxygen, ms is the mass of sulfur, ? is 59.75^(o), and k?/l2 is the same as the kb constant used in equation (6)10. Diatomic molecules possess only one vibrational coordinate which is quantized. This means that only specific results will be obtained for the value of the vibration. The quantum mechanical harmonic oscillator upon first approximation gives the allowed levels of a diatomic molecule. Polyatomic molecules are similar. Each normal mode has quantized energy, and can be approximated by the harmonic oscillator model when at low energy levels. The frequencies associated with bending tend to be lower than the frequencies associated with stretching10. It is possible to see normal modes via IR spectroscopy if they have a change in dipole in the molecule when it stretches or bends10. All of the normal modes in SO2 are IR active and therefore can all be seen in the IR spectrum at the fundamental frequency. It is possible to observe other weak bands in the spectrum which are a result of overtones. Overtones occur because anharmonicities. They usually happen at integer multiples of 2 or 3 of the fundamental frequencies and are caused by two modes being simultaneously excited10. These bands are located at frequencies which are approximately the sum or difference of the two modes which were excited and are weak10. Method About 1.5g of drierite was weighed out and placed in the barrel of a syringe and the plunger was inserted almost entirely into the barrel. A 3 cm piece of rubber tubing was attached to the tip of the syringe. A 1.5 g of sodium hydrogen sulfite was measured and placed in a vial cap that was small enough to fit into the syringe barrel. The filled vial cap was then into the syringe using a bent spatula to prevent the sodium hydrogen sulfite from spilling into the barrel. The plunger was pushed into the syringe as far as it would go. To ensure that none of the sodium hydrogen sulfite was spilled, the syringe was placed tip down in a beaker. The next step was placing 15 mL of 6 M HCl into a small beaker. All of the acid was then drawn into the syringe containing the vial cap very carefully as to not let any of the acid mix with the sodium hydrogen sulfite. The plastic lid was then screwed onto the syringe. Once the cap was secure on the tip, the syringe was shaken so that the acid and the sodium hydrogen sulfite mixed. As SO2 gas was being produced, the plunger on the syringe was pulled out simultaneously. The high pressure of the gas in the syringe caused the cap on the tip to leak so it was necessary to apply pressure to the tip to prevent it from spitting acid out. Once the reaction had stopped producing gas, the syringe was inverted so that the tip was pointing up and the liquid was at the bottom of the barrel. The cap was removed and the tip was connected to the other end of the rubber tubing attached to the syringe containing drierite. At this point the syringe containing drierite was above the syringe containing the SO2 gas. As the plunger in the bottom syringe was being pushed in, the plunger in the top syringe was being pulled out; making sure no liquid was pushed through the tubing and into the top syringe. The top syringe, now containing the SO2 gas, was capped and allowed to sit for five minutes in order for the drierite to dry the SO2 gas. The excess HCl in the reaction syringe was expelled into a waste beaker. 15 mL of NaOH was placed in a beaker and then drawn up into the syringe in order to destroy any remaining SO2. The NaOH was then also expelled into the waste beaker. After the syringe containing the gas had sat for five minutes, the IR gas cell was placed in the hood. The syringe containing the SO2 was then attached connected to the gas cell using another piece of rubber tubing. Both stopcocks on the gas cell were opened and the gas was pushed into the cell. Both stopcocks were then immediately closed to prevent any of the SO2 from leaking out. A spectrum in the range of 700-2500 cm-1 was obtained using an FTIR spectrophotometer. In order to get a good spectrum from the mid IR range, the cell was undiluted. However, to obtain a good spectrum in the far IR range, it was necessary to dilute the gas cell. Once the spectrum had been obtained, the gas cell was placed inside a fume hood. Both stopcocks were opened up and a syringe was used to flush air through the gas cell. The gas cell was then placed in a vacuum sealed dessicator with the stopcocks open in order to dry out any moisture that may have entered the cell during the experiment. Results The IR spectra of SO2 can be seen in Figure 5. By looking at what wavenumbers the peaks appeared at, it could be concluded which peak corresponded to each vibrational mode of SO2. The bending of a molecule happens at lower wavenumbers, so it was concluded that graph in the top right corner corresponds to the ?2 vibration. It was known from literature that the stretches occur somewhere between 1000 and 1500 cm-1 so the graph in the bottom right must correspond to the overtones of SO2s ?3 and ?1 modes. It is known that asymmetric stretches always correspond to higher wavenumbers. So it was concluded that the next two peaks on the spectrum were ?1 and ?3 respectively. The actual experimental wavelengths of each mode can be seen it Table 1. There are two overtones present, one from the ?1 mode and another from the ?3 mode. The lower frequency overtone corresponds to the lower-frequency mode. Thus the lowest overtone is that of ?1 while the second seen overtone comes from the ?2 mode. Using the experimental wavenumbers for each mode, both constants could be found using eq. (7) first to solve for k1. This values was calculated to be 1000.858 Nm-1. The litereature value is 1033 Nm-1 and the percent error in the experimental value was 3.112% The calculated value of k1 was then used in eq. (8) to find the k?/l3 constant. The second constant was calculated to be 78.60 Nm-1. Literature value for this constant is 81 Nm-1 and the percent error in the experimental calculation was 2.963%. To evaluate the effectiveness of this method for finding the constants, both sides of eq. (9) were solved for. The left side equaled 93.77 Nm-1 while the right side equaled 95.54 Nm-1. The percent difference between these two values is 1.85%. In order to determine the harmonicity of each of the modes of vibration, the ve and vexe values were calculated. This was done by graphing ?G/v versus (v + 1) in Microsoft Excel. The ?G corresponds to the wavenumber of the overtone seen on the IR spectrum. ?G was then divided by v. The overtones corresponded to v=2 while the normal mode bands corresponded to ?=1. Graphs for both the ?1 mode and ?2 mode can be seen in Figure 6. Excel was then used to fit a trend line and produce a y = mx + b equation for the data. The slope of the equation was vexe and the intercept was ve. To determine the anharmonicity of the two modes, it was necessary to solve for xe. This was done using eq (4). The calculated values for xe in the ?1 mode was 1.0612 and for the ?3 mode was 0.07891. This means that the ?1 mode is more anharmonic than the ?3 mode. Conclusion For this lab, SO2 ­ was prepared and then studied via FTIR spectroscopy. The three modes of SO2 were identified on the IR spectra obtained. It was determined that the lowest energy of bending correlated to the lowest frequency peak. The second highest frequency peak was determined to be ?1 since the symmetric stretch is lower in energy than the asymmetric stretch (?3) which is the third highest frequency peak. The wavelengths determined from the IR spectra were used to calculate the constants k1 and k?/l3. It was determined from the numbers crunched from eq. (6) that the used method of determining the constants was an accurate method. Also, the anharmonicity of the modes ?1 and ?2 were calculated and compared. The graph of ?G/vversus (v + 1) produce an equation of y = mx + b which provided the values of xeve and v ­e. These values were then used to find xe, which described the anharmonicity of each mode. The ?1 mode was found to be more anharmonic due to its greater xe value whil e the ?3 was found to be more harmonic. Refrences What is Infrared Spectroscopy?. (n.d.). Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, Massachusetts. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from http://www.mtholyoke.edu/~mlyount/MySites/ForensicSpectroscopy/WhatIsIR.html Nakamoto, Kazuo.Infrared and Raman Spectra of Inorganic and Coordination Compounds. Sixth Edition ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Sons, Inc., 2009. Print. Hsu, S. (n.d.). Infrared Spectroscopy. prenhall.com. Retrieved December 6, 2009, from www.prenhall.com/settle/chapters/ch15.pdf Chem.msu.edu. (n.d.). Nature of Vibrational Spectroscopy. Retrieved November 30, 2009, from 2http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/Spectrpy/InfraRed/irspec1.htm#ir1 The Simple Harmonic Oscillator. (n.d.). PAWS Personal Accessible Web Space Kettering University. Retrieved December 12, 2009, from http://paws.kettering.edu/~drussell/Demos/SHO/mass.html Atkins, P., Friedman, R., Paula, J. D. (2008). Rotational and Vibrational Spectra. Quanta, Matter and Change: A Molecular Appraoch to Physical Change (pp. 315-318). New York: W. H. Freeman. Normal mode Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. (n.d.). Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_mode Normal Mode (Harmonic) Analysis. (n.d.). Center for Molecular Modeling. Retrieved December 11, 2009, from http://cmm.cit.nih.gov/intro_simulation/node26.html Vibrational Spectroscopy. (n.d.). med.upenn.edu. Retrieved December 10, 2009, from www.med.upenn.edu/bmbgrad/Faculty/Master_List/Vanderkooi/course_notes/8.vibrational.pdf Sulfer Dioxide Vibration. (n.d.). d.umn.edu. Retrieved November 30, 2009, from www.d.umn.edu/~psiders/courses/chem4644/labinstructions/SO2spartan.pdf Infrared Spectroscopy of SO2. (n.d.). Spectroscopy and Structure Chem 4591. Retrieved November 30, 2009, from 3http://www.colorado.edu/chemistry/chem4581_91/SO2.pdf